Interactive
From electrons to airframes
Nine orders of magnitude in eight steps. Every level of a composite product is decided at the level below it.
~10⁻¹⁰ m · ångströms
1. Electrons & atoms
Everything starts with electron shells: the four outer electrons of carbon let it form four strong covalent bonds — the reason carbon can build chains, rings, diamonds, and fibers. Which atoms an element bonds with, and how strongly, is set right here.